The Hamidian Massacres and the Adana Massacre

The crises of the 1890s

During Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s reign, Armenian demands for reform unfolded amid mounting political instability and violence. Between 1894 and 1896, mass killings of Armenians took place across parts of the Ottoman Empire. Estimates of the dead vary substantially, but the massacres killed many tens of thousands and are often estimated in the hundreds of thousands.

The consequences

Communities suffered destruction of homes, livelihoods, churches, and schools. The violence prompted international protest and relief efforts, but diplomatic intervention did not produce lasting security for Armenian communities.

Adana in 1909

In April 1909, violence in Adana and surrounding districts in Cilicia killed thousands of Armenians. The killings occurred after the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 and demonstrated that constitutional change alone had not ended communal insecurity.

Historical context

These earlier massacres were distinct from the centrally organized wartime deportations and killings beginning in 1915. Nevertheless, they formed an important part of the history of violence and vulnerability that preceded the genocide.