Ottoman Armenian Reform Movements and Revolutionary Politics

20. The Armenian Question in International Diplomacy

The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 brought the condition of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire into European diplomatic negotiations.

The Treaty of San Stefano included provisions concerning reforms and security in Armenian-inhabited Ottoman provinces.

The subsequent Treaty of Berlin, signed in July 1878, replaced the earlier settlement.

Article 61 committed the Ottoman government to reforms and to protecting Armenians against certain forms of violence and abuse.

However, the treaty did not establish Armenian autonomy or an independent Armenian state.

Its enforcement mechanisms were weak.

European powers frequently subordinated Armenian reform demands to broader strategic interests.

The resulting diplomatic issue became known as the Armenian Question.

21. The Formation of Armenian Political Parties

Three important Armenian political organizations emerged in the late nineteenth century.

The Armenakan Party was founded in Van in 1885.

The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party was established in Geneva in 1887.

The Armenian Revolutionary Federation, commonly known as Dashnaktsutyun, was founded in Tiflis in 1890.

These organizations differed in ideology, methods, and political strategy.

Their activities included political education, organizing, advocacy, armed self-defense, revolutionary action, and efforts to secure reforms.

Some initially emphasized reforms or autonomy rather than immediate full independence.

Their programs also evolved as conditions changed.

The emergence of these parties represented a major development in modern Armenian political organization.

22. The Hamidian Massacres

Between 1894 and 1896, mass violence against Armenians occurred across parts of the Ottoman Empire during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.

The massacres resulted in the deaths of large numbers of Armenians, with historical estimates varying substantially.

The violence included killings, destruction of property, forced conversions, and displacement.

The massacres exposed the weakness of international guarantees for Armenian security.

They also intensified Armenian political mobilization and reinforced the conviction among some activists that local self-defense and national political organization were essential.

23. The Young Turk Revolution and the Adana Massacres

The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 restored the Ottoman constitution and initially generated hopes for political reform and equality.

Many Armenians welcomed the possibility of a constitutional order offering greater security and representation.

However, these expectations were severely damaged by the Adana massacres of April 1909.

Thousands of Armenians were killed in Adana and surrounding areas.

The violence demonstrated that constitutional reform alone had not eliminated deep communal tensions, political instability, or the vulnerability of Armenian populations.

The years immediately preceding the First World War were marked by increasingly urgent debates over Armenian security and reforms in the eastern Ottoman provinces.